Space Shuttle Glass

Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent amorphous solid, that has widespread practical, technological, and decorative uses in, for example, window panes, tableware, optics, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of manufactured glass are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO₂), sodium oxide (Na₂O) from sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃), calcium oxide (CaO), also called lime, and several minor additives.

Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their primary use as window panes. Glass will transmit, reflect and refract light; these qualities can be enhanced by cutting and polishing to make optical lenses, prisms, fine glassware, and optical fibers for high speed data transmission by light. Glass can be coloured by adding metal salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels. These qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures. Because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels: bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also been used for paperweights, marbles, and beads. When extruded as glass fiber and matted as glass wool so as to trap air, it becomes a thermal insulating material, and when glass fibers are embedded into an organic polymer plastic, they are a key structural reinforcement part of the composite material fiberglass. Some objects, such as drinking glasses and eyeglasses, are so commonly made of silicate glass that they are simply called by the name of the material.

Scientifically, "glass" is often defined in a broader sense, encompassing every solid that possesses a non-crystalline (that is, amorphous) structure at the atomic scale and that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses. These sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica: metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter alternative to traditional glass.

Silicate glass

Ingredients

Silicon dioxide (SiO₂) is a common fundamental constituent of glass.^[1] In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurites.^[2]

Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure silica. It has excellent resistance to thermal shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting temperature (1723 °C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with.^[3] Normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃, "soda"), which lowers the glass-transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is usually undesirable, so lime (CaO, calcium oxide, generally obtained from limestone), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass.^[4] Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.^[5][6]

Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties. Lead glass or flint glass is more "brilliant" because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses.^[7] Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared radiation, for example in heat-absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs ultraviolet wavelengths.^[8]

The following is a list of the more common types of silicate glasses and their ingredients, properties, and applications:

Fused quartz,^[9] also called fused-silica glass,^[10] vitreous-silica glass: silica (SiO₂) in vitreous, or glass, form (i.e., its molecules are disordered and random, without crystalline structure). It has very low thermal expansion, is very hard, and resists high temperatures (1000–1500 °C). It is also the most resistant against weathering (caused in other glasses by alkali ions leaching out of the glass, while staining it). Fused quartz is used for high-temperature applications such as furnace tubes, lighting tubes, melting crucibles, etc.^[11]
Soda-lime-silica glass, window glass:^[12] silica + sodium oxide (Na₂O) + lime (CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al₂O₃).^[13][14] Is transparent,^[15] easily formed and most suitable for window glass (see flat glass).^[16] It has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to heat^[15] (500–600 °C).^[11] It is used for windows, some low-temperature incandescent light bulbs, and tableware.^[17] Container glass is a soda-lime glass that is a slight variation on flat glass, which uses more alumina and calcium, and less sodium and magnesium, which are more water-soluble. This makes it less susceptible to water erosion.
Sodium borosilicate glass, Pyrex: silica + boron trioxide (B₂O₃) + soda (Na₂O) + alumina (Al₂O₃).^[18] Stands heat expansion much better than window glass.^[10] Used for chemical glassware, cooking glass, car head lamps, etc. Borosilicate glasses (e.g. Pyrex, Duran) have as main constituents silica and boron trioxide. They have fairly low coefficients of thermal expansion (7740 Pyrex CTE is 3.25×10⁻⁶/°C^[19] as compared to about 9×10⁻⁶/°C for a typical soda-lime glass^[20]), making them more dimensionally stable. The lower coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) also makes them less subject to stress caused by thermal expansion, thus less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock. They are commonly used for reagent bottles, optical components and household cookware.
Lead-oxide glass, crystal glass,^[11] lead glass:^[21] silica + lead oxide (PbO) + potassium oxide (K₂O) + soda (Na₂O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina. Because of its high density (resulting in a high electron density), it has a high refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant^[22] (called "crystal", though it is a glass and not a crystal). It also has a high elasticity, making glassware "ring". It is also more workable in the factory, but cannot stand heating very well.^[11] This kind of glass is also more fragile than other glasses^[23] and is easier to cut.^[22]
Aluminosilicate glass: silica + alumina + lime + magnesia^[24] + barium oxide (BaO)^[11] + boric oxide (B₂O₃).^[24] Extensively used for fiberglass,^[24] used for making glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.) and for halogen bulb glass.^[11] Aluminosilicate glasses are also resistant to weathering and water erosion.^[25]
Germanium-oxide glass: alumina + germanium dioxide (GeO₂). Extremely clear glass, used for fiber-optic waveguides in communication networks.^[26] Light loses only 5% of its intensity through 1 km of glass fiber.^[11]

Another common glass ingredient is crushed alkali glass or 'cullet' ready for recycled glass. The recycled glass saves on raw materials and energy. Impurities in the cullet can lead to product and equipment failure. Fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide may be added to reduce the number of air bubbles in the glass mixture.^[4] Glass batch calculation is the method by which the correct raw material mixture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition.^[27]

Bullet resistant glass manufacturing

The bullet resistant glass comes in stages, from the manufacture of raw materials to the testing phase and installation on the desired place, and these phases come as follows:

Manufacturing materials: The materials used in bullet resistant glass manufacturing limited, but they vary depending on the class as we mentioned earlier, since most of bullet resistant glass in which materials of the most important intervention material polycarbonate resistance quick shocks, and most recently was invented a liquid substance that has the ability to switch to template can catch bullets and prevent access, and this process does not need more than a fraction of a second, as well as from the normal entry of normal glass within these materials in bullet resistant glass manufacturing.

Manufacturing method: The manufacturing method varies depending on the materials involved, for example, if the lamination of the glass material of polycarbonate, the glass will be in the form of layers of this material and the material ordinary glass.

Test phase: The test phase will be in the laboratory of ballistic continued manufacturers of these types of glass, where they are exposed glass for several types of weapons starting from the normal gun, until the end to improvised explosive devices, and at this stage, watching the impact of the various shocks on this glass.

Bullet resistant glass Weight: The weight issue important in the manufacturing process, especially in the case of plating cars, for example, the windshield of the SUV type of Mercedes-be ninth grade lamination weighs approximately 200 pounds.

bulletproof glass

While you might not need to stop any bullets, bullet-resistant glass has major benefits.

Bullet resistant viewing windows were installed by Oasis Specialty Glass to safely separate spectators from the shooting range participants at The Gun Parlor in Worcester MA.

When you own your own business, you often have a responsibility not only to your own interests, but to the safety and well-being of your employees and customers. No business wants to be at risk due to flimsy windows or glass on teller or cashier windows. Whether your business is in a big city or a small town, you want to know that your windows will be secure from breaking.

Bullet-resistant and force-resistant glass both offer you the security you deserve in the place where you make your livelihood. Most Businesses hope to never need protection from bullets, but the worst reality would be to face gunfire without anything between you and incoming bullets. However while gunfire may not be the most probable threat, there are still plenty of reasons to have bullet and force-resistant glass.

Avoid Unnecessary Interruptions to Your Business

Bullet and force-resistant glass are not just effective at stopping or deflecting projectiles, they can also protect your store or business from all sorts of potential damages. If you have a store-front near a street or motorway, errant rocks kicked up from the tires of passing vehicles could mean a broken window or potential injury. If however you have glass that simply does not break or crack under sudden force, the rock will not interrupt the flow of your business. The cost of a broken window is not just replacing it, but also the time your shop or business must cease working to accommodate those repairs.

Prevent Robberies

No store or business wants to find itself on the losing end of a robbery. Often the weakest points of any building are the windows. Locks and doors can be as strong as can be, but if there is an easily broken window, somebody intent upon illegally entering your store will find their way inside. However, if your windows are un-breakable, because you chose to use specialty glass (bullet-resistant or force-resistant), you can assure the integrity of your inventory, as well as mitigate the headache of dealing with being robbed.

The numbers of laminate layers and glass layers in bullet resistant glass determine its ability to withstand projectile impacts.

Prevent Actual Bullets (Even if It’s Unlikely)

And finally, in the worst case scenario where a person with a gun is intent upon firing anywhere near your business, you want to know that no bullets (intended or not) make their way past the protection of your transaction windows and walls. You owe it to your employees and your customers to ensure that your place of business is safe from risks of all types, especially the most dire. Bullet resistant transaction windows are available in many levels of protection as rated by Underwriters Laboratory. A safety glass installer can assist you on choosing the right solution based on your security risk.

Durable, Break-Resistant Glass Keeps Your Business Running

Operating a business is a challenge. You have to keep up inventory, manage employees, and cater to customers and vendors. One thing that should not weigh on your mind is whether an accident or act of malicious intent will halt business. Having strong and reliable windows is something you may take for granted, but it is invaluable. Don’t wait for the day when you need to shut down business due to broken glass; contact Oasis Specialty Glass in Massachusetts or Connecticut today to find out all the options you have to make your windows strong and secure. Don’t wait for the worst, prepare with the best.

Calcium silicate: (English: Calcium silicate); The calcium silicate material non-combustible, and up the pressure force it to 600 kN / m 2, used in steam pipes and lines of hot water, are added Kaaoazl in ships, furnaces, and boilers.

Armament ongoing defense

Flashlights & Torches

LED Light Sheet By Addlux

Even high brightness and ideal for the slimmest of lighting designs

3D Lamp USB Power 7 Colors Amazing Optical Illusion 3D Grow LED Lamp Air Shapes Kids Bedroom Night Light

Air LED Strip Lights, AMBOTHER 4X12 LED 8 Colors USB Car Interior Light Footwell Decorative Lightning Kit Wireless Remote Control Sound-activated for Car Home Room Party (with Car Charger)

Currently unavailable.
We don't know when or if this item will be back in stock.

Description: 4 in 1 car interior light decoration, DC 12 V. This is a set of decoration lights, including 4 pieces of lights, a cigarette lighter and a remote control.
Features: high quality RGB LED strips. They are waterproof, sturdy, rustproof, with wireless remote control and they change colour as desired. Simple design for you - a beautiful, exotic and romantic interior.
Features: wireless music control, 8 colours, RGB car interior footlights, control mode: 8 signal colours control, brightness control, on/off, 2 flashing modes, 2 switching modes, 4 music modes.
It is easy to install: each strip has a super adhesive tape on the back for easy installation. The strips are flexible and can be bent.
Use: it can be used on the car interior floor or dash. With car charger, dual smart USB ports, 12-24 V voltage, 5 V 2.4 A. Fits all car models and personal computers.

Our LED light sheet (also referred to as a light panel, light pad, prismex or lumi sheet) technology is under continuous development. We now produce the most advanced lightsheet available in today’s market:

the largest
the brightest
the most evenly illuminated
the thinnest and first flexible sheet lighting
a standard thicknesses range of 3mm to 10mm (thicker if required)

Call 0333 800 1828 to speak to one of our experts or send an email to sales@addlux.com to get a quote.

Our customers use this technology as a backlighting component in a variety of other LED illuminated end-products. These include:

adding an opal diffusion sheet for making bespoke LED light panels
adding a graphic to create permanent displays
adding a frame for making high quality, ultra-slim LED lightboxes
backlighting translucent materials, such as frosted, opaque or stained glass, onyx stone, etc.
any number of space-saving backlighting applications
forming shapes or wrapping round columns, corners, etc

In summary, we are confident that Addlux holds a pre-eminent position in the marketplace for high-tech, high quality LED sheets. Furthermore, we offer you a guarantee of an excellent customer service, including speedy quotes, quick and reliable deliveries and outstanding technical support for any and every reason, including assistance in the development and prototyping of your development products.

Call one of our lighting experts on 0333 800 1828 or send us an email if wish for any further information about us or advice on how best to use our light sheet components. Better still, test us and ask us for a quote.

*Note: As our LED light sheet is not intended to be used as a stand-alone product, but to be integrated into other applications we class them as components. See our technical data sheet for more information.

Addlux LED Light Sheet – The All-Purpose Backlighting Component

Addlux lightsheets are high quality, high energy efficient, state-of-the art components for use in many different lighting applications.

Super bright, Super evenness, Super large, Super thin, Super flexible, Super service

These are the virtues that we claim for our technology and our customer performance. The common denominator in all these is our emphasis on high technology and a customer pleasing sales experience. Let us take a closer look behind our claims; firstly, our high technology, then our great service and technical support.

Illustration 3 Schematic of various types of LG used

Reflector Sheet
LEDs
Light Guide
Translucent Material or Graphic
Transformer / PSU

High Technology

The lightsheet panel comprises essentially the LED light source, a light guide (LG), a reflector sheet, and the power supply/driver/transformer (PSU), see Illustration 1. Depending on the application, the light sheet is then used to backlight a graphic or any other translucent material.

The light guide distributes the light from the LED strips, for a one-sided light guide the reflector sheet serves to return the light back through the light guide, graphic or diffuser sheet that may be opalescent glass or acrylic or translucent materials, such as ground glass, onyx stone, etc.

Illustration 1 Exploded view of the composition

Note Illustration 1 is a schematic of a single-sided sheet. It will look different for a double-sided version.

Reflector Sheet
LEDs
Light Guide
Translucent Material or Graphic
Transformer / PSU

The LED Light Source

The basic element of any LED lighting is the LED itself. The light source we use for manufacturing our Light Sheet are high light intensity, low energy LED strips. We develop and manufacture our own LED strip products in-house using highest quality components, thus ensuring a consistent high-quality product.

The LED strips are embedded in or edge-mounted on a high grade acrylic sheet to form the light guide (see Illustration 2).

The brightness is governed by the placing of the LED strips on one, two or all four sides, depending on the width and shape (see Illustration 3). Where higher levels of brightness are specified we use even more powerful LEDs or mount multiple rows of LED strips.

Illustration 4 The unique grid matrix and dot matrix patterns machined on the light guide ensure even light distribution across its entire surface regardless of its dimensions and location of the LEDs.

We can supply a wide range of different colour temperatures – 6000K or 5300K (cool white); 4000K (moonlight white); 3000K (warm white); single colour RGB (red/green/blue) or colour-changing RGB.

The Addlux Light Guide – A Wonder of High Technology giving Optimum Brightness and Evenness of Illumination

The function of the light guide (LG) is to diffuse and distribute light from the LEDs evenly across its surface. Whereas our competitors machine evenly spaced grooves, we have perfected a novel technique that ensures the evenness of light distribution across the entire surface of the sheet regardless of its size and shape. Even brightness ultimately determines the quality of your end-product, and often the functionality and success of the product/application for which you will use it.

Depending on the size, thickness, arrangement of the LED strips and the specification for your order, we laser-machine one surface of an acrylic sheet with a unique pattern of grids or dots (see Illustration 3). The grids are made up of 3D grooves and the dots are 3D pits. The pattern is computer-generated and controlled, it is unique to the size and shape of the light sheet, varying in the spacing and the density of the grooves or dots, see Illustrations 3.

We use three different approaches to form the unique patterns on the light guide – dot matrix, grid matrix and micro-dot matrix. Sheets with the micro-dot pits have the highest brightness but are presently restricted in size to 1.5m x 1.5m. See Table 1 for brightness properties and maximum size availability.

Reflecting Matrix	Dimension	Max. size	Brightness (average)	Application
Dot	3D	3m x 2m	~2000 lux	Indoor & Outdoor
Grid	3D	4.8m x 2.7m	~ 2000 lux	Indoor & Outdoor
Micro-Dot	3D	1.5m x 1.5m	25% brighter	Indoor & Outdoor

Table 2 Lightsheet Properties

Even Brightness

Using our high technology approach in the manufacture of the light guide we manage to achieve an unparalleled evenness of brightness exceeding 90% across a sheet of any size or shape even on our largest sized lighting sheet. Actual brightness measurements on a sheet size of 3.05m x 1.52m are shown in Illustration 5.

Illustration 5 light meter measurements made on a very large sized panel.

Light Sheet Thickness	Maximum Size Available
3mm	2.4m x 0.6m
4mm, 5mm, 6mm	3m x 2m; 4.8m x 2.7m
7mm, 8mm	3m x 2m; 4m x 1.6m; 4.8m x 2.7m
10mm, 12mm	3m x 2m; 4m x 1.6m
Weight Calculation (KG)	Length (m) x Width (m) x Thickness (mm) x 1.19kg

Table 2 Summary of Maximum Sheet Sizes

Our 3mm Thick Light Sheet is Flexible!

This flexible lighting sheet offers you boundless new design possibilities. By the way, if you are price conscious, as a rule of thumb, thinner LED sheet cost less than a thicker one, another potential benefit of this new Addlux product. Ask our technical staff for more details and support. See our Flexible Lightsheet page for more details.

From Idea to Prototype to Large Scale Production

We can supply shapes and curved configurations to any design you wish – small or large, simple or complicated. Our technical team will guide you and help you develop any ideas that you may have.

More Features Offering Great Flexibility for Your Design More Features Offering Great Flexibility for Your Design

single- and double-sided LED sheets
very high brightness levels
guaranteed even brightness across the entire surface
LED lighting with a wide range of colour temperatures –bright cool, natural and warm whites to RGB multi-colour
LED power cable exit points of your choice, from any edge or the back surface of the sheet
easy connectivity; male-female barrel connections between the light sheet and the PSU
different voltage power supply units (PSU), 12V and 24V, or to your specification
UK 3-pin, continental and other international power plug hard-wired to the PSU
IP67 rated for outside use or in wet environments

Our Comprehensive Technical and Customer Service Support

Our Light Sheet technology exhibits major differences in design concepts of other suppliers in the market for similar products. We offer you a sound technical advice for our entire product range, and especially regarding the properties and use of our components. We especially welcome you to join with many other customers and try out our technical service for the design and one-off manufacture of your development projects. Here, we assist with the choice and specification of component parts, finalise with you your schematics or technical drawings, and quickly manufacture a one-off, or a prototype for you to test before you commit to larger scale production. No assignment is too extreme, we excel in the unusual.

In conclusion, we back up our technology with a high-quality customer service. You will get a speedy reply to your enquiry, whether for technical matters or for a quote, by next working day. You will find our prices to be reasonable and our delivery faster than you would normally expect for standard or bespoke light sheet as well as for development samples. You can rely on our quoted delivery as our delivery performance exceeds 99%. Your repeat business is important to us, so you can expect a superb back-up service and exceptional post-sales support.

A Handy Data Sheet

Download the Data Sheet for our light sheet components. This gives you a complete summary of dimensions, property options and warranties for all our light sheet components. It is your to-hand guide for the many possibilities offered by the Addlux LED Light Sheet.

Download LED Light Sheet Technical Data Sheet

LED Light Sheet By Addlux

Even high brightness and ideal for the slimmest of lighting designs

the largest
the brightest
the most evenly illuminated
the thinnest and first flexible sheet lighting
a standard thicknesses range of 3mm to 10mm (thicker if required)

Call 0333 800 1828 to speak to one of our experts or send an email to sales@addlux.com to get a quote.

Our customers use this technology as a backlighting component in a variety of other LED illuminated end-products. These include:

adding an opal diffusion sheet for making bespoke LED light panels
adding a graphic to create permanent displays
adding a frame for making high quality, ultra-slim LED lightboxes
backlighting translucent materials, such as frosted, opaque or stained glass, onyx stone, etc.
any number of space-saving backlighting applications
forming shapes or wrapping round columns, corners, etc

Addlux LED Light Sheet – The All-Purpose Backlighting Component

Addlux lightsheets are high quality, high energy efficient, state-of-the art components for use in many different lighting applications.

Super bright, Super evenness, Super large, Super thin, Super flexible, Super service

Illustration 3 Schematic of various types of LG used

Reflector Sheet
LEDs
Light Guide
Translucent Material or Graphic
Transformer / PSU

High Technology

Illustration 1 Exploded view of the composition

Note Illustration 1 is a schematic of a single-sided sheet. It will look different for a double-sided version.

Reflector Sheet
LEDs
Light Guide
Translucent Material or Graphic
Transformer / PSU

The LED Light Source

The LED strips are embedded in or edge-mounted on a high grade acrylic sheet to form the light guide (see Illustration 2).

We can supply a wide range of different colour temperatures – 6000K or 5300K (cool white); 4000K (moonlight white); 3000K (warm white); single colour RGB (red/green/blue) or colour-changing RGB.

The Addlux Light Guide – A Wonder of High Technology giving Optimum Brightness and Evenness of Illumination

Reflecting Matrix	Dimension	Max. size	Brightness (average)	Application
Dot	3D	3m x 2m	~2000 lux	Indoor & Outdoor
Grid	3D	4.8m x 2.7m	~ 2000 lux	Indoor & Outdoor
Micro-Dot	3D	1.5m x 1.5m	25% brighter	Indoor & Outdoor

Table 2 Lightsheet Properties

Even Brightness

Illustration 5 light meter measurements made on a very large sized panel.

Light Sheet Thickness	Maximum Size Available
3mm	2.4m x 0.6m
4mm, 5mm, 6mm	3m x 2m; 4.8m x 2.7m
7mm, 8mm	3m x 2m; 4m x 1.6m; 4.8m x 2.7m
10mm, 12mm	3m x 2m; 4m x 1.6m
Weight Calculation (KG)	Length (m) x Width (m) x Thickness (mm) x 1.19kg

Table 2 Summary of Maximum Sheet Sizes

Our 3mm Thick Light Sheet is Flexible!

From Idea to Prototype to Large Scale Production

We can supply shapes and curved configurations to any design you wish – small or large, simple or complicated. Our technical team will guide you and help you develop any ideas that you may have.

More Features Offering Great Flexibility for Your Design More Features Offering Great Flexibility for Your Design

single- and double-sided LED sheets
very high brightness levels
guaranteed even brightness across the entire surface
LED lighting with a wide range of colour temperatures –bright cool, natural and warm whites to RGB multi-colour
LED power cable exit points of your choice, from any edge or the back surface of the sheet
easy connectivity; male-female barrel connections between the light sheet and the PSU
different voltage power supply units (PSU), 12V and 24V, or to your specification
UK 3-pin, continental and other international power plug hard-wired to the PSU
IP67 rated for outside use or in wet environments

Our Comprehensive Technical and Customer Service Support

A Handy Data Sheet

Download LED Light Sheet Technical Data Sheet

Control Panel

Cockpit display systems represent a visual interface (and audio) that enables the crew of the plane from the management of the cockpit, where the system operates on the exchange of data between the aircraft and control devices and sensors in both directions.

Contrary to what was previously when the plane was crowded with cables, pipes and mechanical connectors and indicators which are sometimes a threat to aviation safety in the event of malfunction, the system cockpit mail provides more guarantees and reduces the risk and take advantage of electronic sensors more reliable than mechanical sensors that lose some of functions change the weather.

Working principle

The current system for the cockpit system depends on three basic components: sensors, central computer, electronic indicators or the so-called flat-screen display.

Sensor: serves as the senses and explore all measure what is going on inside and outside the plane.

Central Computer: handles data and Ilha to audio and video signals presented to the pilot to take orders and do what must deal with variables.

Display: act as an intermediary between the pilot and the plane watched through which everything is located inside and outside the plane.

Cockpit (English: Cockpit) are dedicated to a particular area of command of the aircraft and through the pilot and assist the work of observation, generally located in the foreground.

This phrase is generally used in aircraft or spacecraft, and the latest cockpits are enclosed cabins, except for some small aircraft. The cockpit is the only room that could including the pilot of the command and control aircraft, first appeared in 1914, all control devices by plane from measuring devices, routers, and driving devices located inside the cabin.

Cabin - This room is located at the front of the plane, where pilots control. In the cockpit functions. It consists of control cranes and dashboard.

The crew consists of:

The first pilot (captain))

Co-pilot

(Flight engineer (flight engineer)

In the cockpit of modern flight tools are necessary:

.Plane remote control mode

President View the flight manager

Navigation display data

Finders

Power Control

Radar

Navigation controls

Backup devices

Console in aviation

For Captain

Computer Panel Information System Assistant surface

and Data stores

How to Build a Computer: The Basics

How to find the best storage, memory, and processor to build the best computer possible.

There has never been a better time to build your own PC, but where’s the best place to start? Determining what you want to get out of your new computer is the first step and it guides the rest of the process. When you know what you want from your computer, you’ll know what you need from your hardware, which is the source of your computer’s performance. Get the most performance for less by investing in the right components from the start. That’s when you can begin to build.

What do you want to build?

It’s easy to get overwhelmed with all the possible variables in a PC build. Do you want to build a PC to save money? Or do you want to reach the highest levels of performance? The common thread with each of these scenarios is the hardware – the motherboard, processor (CPU), storage (hard drive or SSD), and memory (RAM). The “guts” of the computer have the most impact on your system’s performance, while the other components like the case, operating system (OS), monitor, mouse, power supply, and keyboard have a much smaller impact on how the computer runs, though they’re still important.

The key components you’ll need

Once you’ve decided what kind of PC you want to build, you can begin to research and purchase the hardware you need to fulfil your plan. Here are the essential parts:

Motherboard

A motherboard is the first component you’ll want to choose. The motherboard dictates the physical form factor and size of your PC build, but it also determines what other pieces of hardware the computer can use. For example, the motherboard establishes the power of the processor it can handle, the memory technology (DDR4, DDR3, DDR2, etc.) and number of modules that can be installed, and the storage form factor (2.5-inch, mSATA, or m.2) and storage interface (SATA or PCIe). While you will want to choose your motherboard based on other compatible components, the motherboard should be your starting point. Find out more about RAM and motherboard compatibility.

Processor/Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the engine of your computer and sets the performance expectations for the entire build. Memory and storage fuel the processor, which controls every data transaction within the PC. When you’re determining which CPU to install, pay attention to the gigahertz (GHz) – the higher the GHz, the faster the processor. However, more GHz also means the CPU consumes more energy, which could lead to higher system temperatures that require better airflow or heat dissipation within the computer.

Memory (RAM)

Adding memory (RAM) is one of the fastest, easiest, and most affordable ways to amplify the performance of the computer you’re building because it gives your system more available space to temporarily store data that’s being used. Nearly every computer operation relies on memory – that includes having several tabs open while surfing the Web, typing and composing an email, multitasking between applications, and even moving your mouse cursor. Even background services and processes, like system updates, can draw from your RAM and that’s why it’s important to have as much memory as possible. The more things you’re doing, the more memory you need.

Choosing the best RAM for your system involves two things: compatibility and how much RAM your system can support. First, for compatibility, identify the kind of module your system uses by identifying the form factor (the physical form of the module – generally, desktops use UDIMMs, laptops use SODIMMs), then figure out the memory technology (DDR4, DDR3, DDR2, etc.) your system supports. Second, your system can only handle so many GB of memory, and that depends on your system. If you buy 64GB of RAM and your computer can only handle 16GB, that’s 48GB of wasted memory you can’t take advantage of.

There’s an easy way to find compatible upgrades: Download the Crucial^® System Scanner and let it do the work for you. It displays how much memory you currently have, the maximum memory capacity of your computer, and available upgrades for your specific system. Using the System Scanner doesn’t cost a thing and guarantees compatibility of your components when you order on Crucial.com.

Storage

Your files and data are saved long-term on your storage drive. This data is held on either a hard disk drive (HDD) or solid state drive (SSD). Although hard drives generally give you more storage space (in GB), SSDs have essentially made them outdated – SSDs are on average 6x faster¹ and 90x more energy-efficient² than hard drives.

The speed discrepancy comes from how the two storage devices read and write data – read and write speeds measure how fast data loads (reads) and saves/transfers (writes). Hard drives use small mechanical moving parts and spinning platters to do this, and SSDs use NAND flash technology. The difference results in better speed, efficiency, and durability because small mechanical parts and spinning platters are much more susceptible to physical damage than NAND. Your data is accessed faster and preserved longer on SSDs because of this difference.

Case, fans, and power supply

Depending on the kind of PC you’re building, you’ll also need to adjust what you’re looking for with a case and power supply. If you’re creating a high-powered performance workhorse, you’ll need a robust power supply to make it all run, and a case with optimal internal airflow and fans to expel hot air that could potentially damage the system. Zip ties are a massive help with managing all the cables inside your rig, and consolidating the cables helps improves airflow.

PC building on your budget

The amount of money you spend on the parts of a computer will vary. If you’re building a PC to save money, you’ll probably want to at least match the performance of a store-bought desktop or laptop while spending less. If you’re going for the best possible performance in all of your PC components, expect to pay more. Faster processors cost more than slower ones, and memory and SSDs with more GB cost more than those with fewer GB.

Since memory and storage are a large part of the cost within a new computer, building your own PC gives you a chance to save on these components by adding your own. While RAM and SSD costs rise with the amount of GB they offer, they are less expensive than buying pre-installed (and often inadequate) components that you’ll likely need to upgrade quickly.

How to build your PC

When you put all the parts together, make sure you have plenty of room to keep your build organized. Be aware of static electricity as you build – it’s one of the few ways the hardware can be damaged but it’s easy to avoid. Frequently ground yourself by touching an unpainted metal surface or wear an electrostatic discharge (ESD) wrist strap to protect your system’s components from the static electricity that’s naturally present in your body. It’s also helpful to keep a can of compressed air to remove any dust or fine debris from the interface as you’re installing the processor, memory, and SSD.

Adding the hardware

For instructions on installing the processor, power supply, and putting the motherboard in the case, consult each component’s owner’s manual. The act of installation or assembling parts isn’t complicated, but there is the potential for errors to occur. That’s why it’s best to follow the more detailed step-by-step instructions for each specific part.

Installing the memory

RAM is the easiest hardware to install when you’re building a PC. Locate the memory slots on the motherboard. Hold your memory modules on the side to avoid touching the chips and gold pins. Align the notches on the module with the ridge in the slot then firmly press the module in until it clicks. As you’re pressing, note that it takes about 30 pounds of pressure to fully install a module. Find out how to install memory in a laptop or a desktop.

Installing the HDD or SSD

Depending on the form factor of the SSD you’ve purchased (2.5-inch, mSATA, or M.2), installation requires attaching the drive to the storage interface, then fitting it into the drive bay (if it’s a 2.5-inch SSD). If you’re looking for the largest capacity possible and have an extremely tight budget, a hard drive may be an attractive option. For instructions on installing your hard drive, consult its owner’s manual. Find out more about SSD installation with our guides and videos.

Time to boot up your new computer!

Once your system is assembled, it’s time for the big moment – hit the power button! Make sure your monitor and keyboard are connected to the PC, and if everything worked correctly, a screen will appear where you can enter the system BIOS. If you have a disc or flash drive with an OS, put it into the appropriate drive, boot up, and you can install the OS. At this point, the assembly is over – congratulations, you’ve now built your own PC! Way to go!

Fuselage and triangles

Components of an Aircraft

Although airplanes are designed for a variety of purposes, most of them have the same major components. [Figure 3-4] The overall characteristics are largely determined by the original design objectives. Most airplane structures include a fuselage, wings, an empennage, landing gear, and a powerplant.

Fuselage

The fuselage is the central body of an airplane and is designed to accommodate the crew, passengers, and cargo. It also provides the structural connection for the wings and tail assembly. Older types of aircraft design utilized an open truss structure constructed of wood, steel, or aluminum tubing. [Figure 3-5] The most popular types of fuselage structures used in today’s aircraft are the monocoque (French for “single shell”) and semimonocoque.

Wings

The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight. There are numerous wing designs, sizes, and shapes used by the various manufacturers. Each fulfills a certain need with respect to the expected p Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion of the fuselage. These designs are referred to as high-, mid-, and low-wing, respectively. The number of wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single set of wings are referred to as monoplanes, while those with two sets are called biplanes. [Figure 3-6]erformance for the particular airplane.

Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts that transmit the flight and landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since the wing struts are usually attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this type of wing structure is called semi-cantilever. A few high-wing and most low-wing airplanes have a full cantilever wing designed to carry the loads without external struts.

The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers. [Figure 3-7] These are reinforced by trusses, I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the skin. The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil). In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks are either an integral part of the wing’s structure or consist of flexible containers mounted inside of the wing.

Attached to the rear, or trailing edges, of the wings are two types of control surfaces referred to as ailerons and flaps. Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the tip, and move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to roll. Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing. The flaps are normally flush with the wing’s surface during cruising flight. When extended, the flaps move simultaneously downward to increase the lifting force of the wing for takeoffs and landings. [Figure 3-8]

Alternate Types of Wings

Alternate types of wings are often found on aircraft. The shape and design of a wing is dependent upon the type of operation for which an aircraft is intended and is tailored to specific types of flying. These design variations are discussed in the Aerodynamics of Flight category, which provides information on the effect controls have on lifting surfaces from traditional wings to wings that use both flexing (due to billowing) and shifting (through the change of the aircraft’s CG). For example, the wing of the weight-shift control aircraft is highly swept in an effort to reduce drag and allow for the shifting of weight to provide controlled flight. [Figure 3-9] Handbooks specific to most categories of aircraft are available for the interested pilot and can be found on the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) website at www.faa.gov.

Empennage

The empennage includes the entire tail group and consists of fixed surfaces, such as the vertical stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer. The movable surfaces include the rudder, the elevator, and one or more trim tabs. [Figure 3-10]

The rudder is attached to the back of the vertical stabilizer. During flight, it is used to move the airplane’s nose left and right. The elevator, which is attached to the back of the horizontal stabilizer, is used to move the nose of the airplane up and down during flight. Trim tabs are small, movable portions of the trailing edge of the control surface. These movable trim tabs, which are controlled from the flight deck, reduce control pressures. Trim tabs may be installed on the ailerons, the rudder, and/or the elevator.

A second type of empennage design does not require an elevator. Instead, it incorporates a one-piece horizontal stabilizer that pivots from a central hinge point. This type of design is called a stabilator and is moved using the control wheel, just as the elevator is moved. For example, when a pilot pulls back on the control wheel, the stabilator pivots so the trailing edge moves up. This increases the aerodynamic tail load and causes the nose of the airplane to move up. Stabilators have an antiservo tab extending across their trailing edge. [Figure 3-11]

he antiservo tab moves in the same direction as the trailing edge of the stabilator and helps make the stabilator less sensitive. The antiservo tab also functions as a trim tab to relieve control pressures and helps maintain the stabilator in the desired position.

Landing Gear

The landing gear is the principal support of the airplane when parked, taxiing, taking off, or landing. The most common type of landing gear consists of wheels, but airplanes can also be equipped with floats for water operations or skis for landing on snow. [Figure 3-12]

Wheeled landing gear consists of three wheels—two main wheels and a third wheel positioned either at the front or rear of the airplane. Landing gear with a rear mounted wheel is called conventional landing gear.

Airplanes with conventional landing gear are sometimes referred to as tailwheel airplanes. When the third wheel is located on the nose, it is called a nosewheel, and the design is referred to as a tricycle gear. A steerable nosewheel or tailwheel permits the airplane to be controlled throughout all operations while on the ground. Most aircraft are steered by moving the rudder pedals, whether nosewheel or tailwheel. Additionally, some aircraft are steered by differential braking.

The propeller, mounted on the front of the engine, translates the rotating force of the engine into thrust, a forward acting force that helps move the airplane through the air. A propeller is a rotating airfoil that produces thrust through aerodynamic action. A high-pressure area is formed at the back of the propeller’s airfoil, and low pressure is produced at the face of the propeller, similar to the way lift is generated by an airfoil used as a lifting surface or wing. This pressure differential develops thrust from the propeller, which in turn pulls the airplane forward. Engines may be turned around to be pushers with the propeller at the rear.

There are two significant factors involved in the design of a propeller that impact its effectiveness. The angle of a propeller blade, as measured against the hub of the propeller, keeps the angle of attack (AOA) (See definition in Glossary) relatively constant along the span of the propeller blade, reducing or eliminating the possibility of a stall. The amount of lift being produced by the propeller is directly related to the AOA, which is the angle at which the relative wind meets the blade. The AOA continuously changes during the flight depending upon the direction of the aircraft.

The pitch is defined as the distance a propeller would travel in one revolution if it were turning in a solid. These two factors combine to allow a measurement of the propeller’s efficiency. Propellers are usually matched to a specific aircraft/ powerplant combination to achieve the best efficiency at a particular power setting, and they pull or push depending on how the engine is mounted.

Subcomponents

The subcomponents of an airplane include the airframe, electrical system, flight controls, and brakes.

The airframe is the basic structure of an aircraft and is designed to withstand all aerodynamic forces, as well as the stresses imposed by the weight of the fuel, crew, and payload.

The primary function of an aircraft electrical system is to generate, regulate, and distribute electrical power throughout the aircraft. There are several different power sources on aircraft to power the aircraft electrical systems. These power sources include: engine-driven alternating current (AC) generators, auxiliary power units (APUs), and external power. The aircraft’s electrical power system is used to operate the flight instruments, essential systems, such as anti-icing, and passenger services, such as cabin lighting.

The flight controls are the devices and systems that govern the attitude of an aircraft and, as a result, the flight path followed by the aircraft. In the case of many conventional airplanes, the primary flight controls utilize hinged, trailingedge surfaces called elevators for pitch, ailerons for roll, and the rudder for yaw. These surfaces are operated by the pilot in the flight deck or by an automatic pilot.

In the case of most modern airplanes, airplane brakes consist of multiple pads (called caliper pads) that are hydraulically squeezed toward each other with a rotating disk (called a rotor) between them. The pads place pressure on the rotor which is turning with the wheels. As a result of the increased friction on the rotor, the wheels inherently slow down and stop turning. The disks and brake pads are made either from steel, like those in a car, or from a carbon material that weighs less and can absorb more energy. Because airplane brakes are used principally during landings and must absorb enormous amounts of energy, their life is measured in landings rather than miles.

The Powerplant

The powerplant usually includes both the engine and the propeller. The primary function of the engine is to provide the power to turn the propeller. It also generates electrical power, provides a vacuum source for some flight instruments, and in most single-engine airplanes, provides a source of heat for the pilot and passengers. [Figure 3-13] The engine is covered by a cowling, or a nacelle, which are both types of covered housing. The purpose of the cowling or nacelle is to streamline the flow of air around the engine and to help cool the engine by ducting air around the cylinders.

High lift Airfoils

An airfoil is a device which gets a useful reaction from air moving over its surface. When an airfoil is moved through the air, it is capable of producing lift. Wings, horizontal tail surfaces vertical tails surfaces, and propellers are all examples of airfoils.

Generally the wing of small aircraft will look like the cross-section of the figure above.

The forward part of an airfoil is rounded and is called the leading edge. The aft part is narrow and tapered and is called the trailing edge. A reference line often used in discussing airfoils is the chord, an imaginary straight line joining the extremities of the leading and trailing edges.

Bernoulli's Principle: To understand how lift is produced, we must examine a phenomenon discovered many years ago by the scientist Bernoulli and later called Bernoulli's Principle:

The pressure of a fluid (liquid or gas) decreases at points where the speed of the fluid increases. In other words, Bernoulli found that within the same fluid, in this case air, high speed flow is associated with low pressure, and low speed flow with high pressure.

This principle was first used to explain changes in the pressure of fluid flowing within a pipe whose cross-sectional area varied. In the wide section of the gradually narrowing pipe, the fluid moves at low speed, producing high pressure. As the pipe narrows it must contain the same amount of fluid. In this narrow section, the fluid moves at high speed, producing low pressure.

An important application of this phenomenon is made in giving lift to the wing of an airplane, an airfoil. The airfoil is designed to increase the velocity of the airflow above its surface, thereby decreasing pressure above the airfoil. Simultaneously, the impact of the air on the lower surface of the airfoil increases the pressure below. This combination of pressure decrease above and increase below produces lift.

Probably you have held your flattened hand out of the window of a moving automobile.

As you inclined your hand to the wind, the force of air pushed against it forcing your hand to rise. The airfoil (in this case, your hand) was deflecting the wind which, in turn, created an equal and opposite dynamic pressure on the lower surface of the airfoil, forcing it up and back. The upward component of this force is lift; the backward component is drag.

Power The Telekinetic and driving mechanism and energy internal ,intrinsic energy Drag

Drag Power

The power required to overcome drag

where is the drag force, v is speed of the fluid relative to the body, is the drag coefficient, and is the density.

Power (aerodynamic drag)

P d = 1 2 · ρ · u 3 · A · C d

أعلى النموذج

أسفل النموذج

أعلى النموذج

أسفل النموذج

Description

In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two fluid layers (or surfaces) or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend on velocity. Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow and the squared velocity for a turbulent flow. Even though the ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction, the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity.

Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the solid object in the fluid’s path.

Under the assumption that the fluid is not moving relative to the currently used reference system, the power required to overcome the aerodynamic drag is given by this equation.

Note that the power needed to push an object through a fluid increases as the cube of the velocity. A car cruising on a highway at 50 mph (80 km/h) may require only 10 horsepower (7.5 kW) to overcome aerodynamic drag, but that same car at 100 mph (160 km/h) requires 80 hp (60 kW). With a doubling of speed the drag (force) quadruples per the formula. Exerting 4 times the force over a fixed distance produces 4 times as much work. At twice the speed the work (resulting in displacement over a fixed distance) is done twice as fast. Since power is the rate of doing work, 4 times the work done in half the time requires 8 times the power.

Drag power kite with very high lift coefficient

Highlights

A crosswind flown “drag power” kite has its optimal lift coefficient at very high values due to the usually high tether drag.

The sensitivity on the optimal very high lift coefficient against parameter uncertainties is small.

For high lift coefficients, a biplane kite configuration outperforms a monoplane kite configuration.

If the gap between biplane airfoils is a few chord lengths, their disturbing aerodynamic interference is negligible.

Very high lift coefficients of above five can be achieved with multi-element airfoils.

Abstract

As an alternative to conventional wind turbines, this study considered kites with onboard wind turbines driven by a high airspeed due to crosswind flight (“drag power”). The hypothesis of this study was, that if the kite's lift coefficient is maximized, then the power, energy yield, allowed costs and profit margin are also maximized. This hypothesis was confirmed based on a kite power system model extended from Loyd's model. The performance of small-scale and utility-scale kites in monoplane and biplane configurations were examined for increasing lift coefficients. Moreover, several parameters of the utility-scale system were optimized with a genetic algorithm. With an optimal lift coefficient of 4.5, the biplane outperformed the monoplane. A 40 m wing span kite was expected to achieve a rated power of about 4.1 MW with a power density of about 52 kW/m². A parameter sensitivity analysis of the optimized design was performed. Moreover, to demonstrate the feasibility of very high lift coefficients and the validity of a utilized simplified airfoil polar model, CFDs of a proposed high-lift multi-element airfoil were performed and the airfoil polars were recorded. Finally, a planform design of a biplane kite was proposed.

Airframe and Bare Airframe

The identification of bare-airframe dynamics from flight-test data with feedback regulation active raises some important issues and limitations. The SCAS feed-backs generally suppress the bare-airframe excitation signal, especially at lower frequencies (Fig. 5.6), and introduce cross-control correlation that also reduces the effective input autospectrum for multi-input analyses (Chapter 9).

Perhaps the greatest concern in the identification of the bare-airframe response under closed-loop test conditions is that the SCAS feedback introduces correlation between the output noise and the bare-airframe excitation signal ( v and x, respectively, in Fig. 7.4). This correlation leads to bias errors in the frequency-response estimate. The analytical and numerical simulation results presented herein show that bare-airframe dynamics can be determined without incurring significant bias errors, subject to modest restrictions on the noise-to-signal ratio. These restrictions are consistent with the flight-testing guidelines discussed previously (Sec. 5.7). Although this chapter refers to SCAS feedback, the same considerations also apply to piloted feedback regulation as well.

The following topics are covered in this chapter: situations requiring closed-loop testing, theoretical analysis of bias errors caused by feedback, and numerical study of bias errors in closed-loop testing.

8.1 Limiting Conditions in Closed-Loop Identification

Some situations require that the identification of bare-airframe dynamics be based on test data collected with one or more of the SCAS channels engaged. Possible reasons for these circumstances to arise include the following:

1. The bare-airframe dynamics might have lightly damped, unstable, or highly coupled modes that make it too difficult for the pilot to execute...

Seat electrics Smart

Negotiable introversion seat

Negotiable introversion seat in the aviation refers to the extra seat for people traveling Adaan- -gar who do not occupy the plane [1]. In general, the term "seat Negotiable introversion" can also refer to any type of seats that are in the vehicles, which can be folded; Vehicles including vehicles, cars, trucks, buses, Tanks extinguish the fire, and taxis.

Aviation

In the air vehicles, seats removable for introversion, called the official center of the term crew overtime - can be located in the cockpit or passenger cabin: In the cabin, this type of seating is available for people who do not occupy the plane. These may be cadet pilots, crew members working outside of where they are transferred to another airport, government officials (Kmozvi Federal Aviation Administration), or the crew of the aircraft. Chair Rollaway passenger cabin used by cabin crew and the nature of the work is located near the emergency exits to be able Mazavi plane to open the door quickly during an emergency evacuation. Rollaway chair in the passenger cabin itself when it involves Ptlqa not be in use to keep space in the corridors, emergency exits and work platforms.

Some air vehicles do not contain this type of seats in the cockpit, and the other contains one or two. In most airlines, the observer chairs contain panel audio to watch or participate in the flight connections.

The oxygen mask is available for each chair. There may be additional seats are folding in the basic plane hosts the cabin, and it depends on how to arrange the air vehicle and how many air hosts aircraft workers. Both types may contain chairs and parked, or are introverted. Both types sometimes may be used by staff outside of work (employee or other air lines or another person) engaged in a trip free of charge, when there is no available chair in the cabin. And to increase security precautions for the plane's cabin since the events of September 11, 2001 it has been allocated and tightened restrictions for who can use these seats.

Energy storage

Storage capacity (in English: Energy storage) there are materials to store a certain type of energy so that it can exploit the energy stored later when needed to perform the job. The types of energy are either in the form of potential energy (such as gravity, chemical energy and electric power), or kinetic energy (such as thermal energy). The store at the same spring energy work in the spring, which tightens and works automatically, and store energy in the form of battery power, chemical and turn the chemical energy into electrical energy and operates a computer running a computer even an hour at a time not to run the computer. And stored in the hydroelectric plants of water reservoirs in the form of energy situation caused by gravity. Fossil fuels such as coal and oil depot solar energy is, and even the food we eat and the content of carbohydrates, sugar, protein and lipids are energy stocks in the image of a chemical composition of stockpiled which the sun any solar radiation

Should You Get a Tesla Home Battery? Let Physics Explain

Tesla announced a battery for your house, the Powerwall. I think this is a great opportunity to talk about batteries and physics. Let me answer some questions you might have.

Why would you want a battery for your house?

This is perhaps the most important question and one that has likely been addressed many times. In short, a house battery will let you be more power independent. If you have solar panels or electricity generated from wind, they don't always produce the same amount of power. With a battery, you can store this energy during the day (or during wind) and then use it at night.

A house battery will also let you get power from the electric company at night when the rates are lower and then use it during the day. Really, that's win-win. You win with a lower power bill and the electric company wins with lower demand during the day.

How is the Powerwall different than other batteries?

Elon Musk's Grand Plan to Power the World With Batteries

How Tesla's Batteries Will Power Your Home

Tesla's New Battery Will Make Lithium Ion the Next AA

You could always have a battery for your house. The most common way was to use lead acid batteries, like the one in your car. However, this was not so simple. You would need to have a whole bunch of the batteries and you would have to connect them together. When one battery goes out, you have to replace it. Oh, the traditional battery is also expensive and takes up lots of space.

The Powerwall seems to make a home battery more like an appliance. It mounts on the wall and you don't have to maintain individual batteries, and the price seems reasonable at between $3,000 to $3,500.

So, you could just get this battery and run your house?

Actually, no. Your house runs on AC current but the battery gives you DC current. This means that you need to take the DC current and convert it to AC current. You might have a device that does this in your car so that you can plug in household items like a computer or a coffee pot. The converter takes the DC current from the car battery and turns it into an AC current so that your laptop can then take this AC current and convert it back to DC. Yes, that seems silly but it's true. The Powerwall does not include a DC to AC converter (or AC to DC if you want to charge from the power grid).

How long could you run your house with a Powerwall?

Tesla makes a 7 and 10 kilowatt-hour battery. Let's look at the 10 kWh one—but Tesla says that you can stack these such that you could make a 20 kWh battery if that made you happy. But really, this comes down to the definition of power as the rate that you do work (or change energy).

We know the energy stored in the battery and we can estimate the average power the house uses. From that, I can solve for the time to use this energy stored in the battery.

What is the energy stored in a battery? The bigger Powerwall has 10 kWh. Yes, this is a unit of energy and not power. It says that you could get a power of 10 kilowatts for 1 hour. You can convert this energy to Joules if you like - it would be 3.6 x 10⁷ Joules (1 watt is a Joule/second).

The next thing we need to calculate the run time is the power. How much power does your house use? I think 2 kilowatts is a good estimate. With that, we can calculate the time:

Five hours doesn't seem like a long time, but I bet this would get you through the night if you are using solar power (you don't use as much energy when you are asleep). Ok, actually you would get less than 5 hours. This calculation assumes everything is 100% efficient. In fact, the battery is only 92 percent efficient and the DC to AC converter would have some energy loss as well. If you aimed for 3 hours at 2 kW, I think you would be ok.

What is energy density?

If I talk about density, you will probably think of the mass of an object divided by its volume. This would be the mass-density. Energy density is the energy stored in a device divided by its volume. Simple, right? But why would you need this? Well, it tells you how large a storage device will need to be to store a certain amount of energy.

What is the energy density for the Powerwall? From the Powerwall page, the battery has dimensions of 130 cm x 86 cm x 18 cm. Assuming this is a perfect rectangular cube it would have a volume of 0.201 m³. With 3.6 x 10⁷ Joules (or 36 MJ) of stored energy, the Powerwall has an energy density of 179 MJ/m³ or 0.179 MJ/L - I don't know why people like energy densities in Joules per liter.

How does this energy density compare to other things? This Wikipedia page lists the energy density of various mediums. Looking at this data, the energy density for the Powerwall seems rather low since a lead-acid battery has a density of 0.56 MJ/L. However, maybe this is due to extra space in the Tesla battery. There is also a mass energy density (energy per unit mass). The Powerwall has a mass of 100 kg which puts the mass energy density at 0.36 MJ/kg. This value puts the Powerwall right in the rand for Lithium-ion batteries.

Can you assign some physics homework for the Powerwall?

Of course. Homework is my favorite part. Here are some questions for you to consider.

How long could you run your smart phone using the Powerwall as your battery? Here is some help on phone batteries.
What if you put this Powerwall in your Tesla car? What kind of range would you get? How does this Powerwall battery compare in energy storage to the battery in the electric cars?
Suppose you wanted to charge your Powerwall battery with a stationary bike connected to a generator. If you could pedal and produce 100 Watts, how long would it take to charge?
In his presentation, Elon Musk says that a small portion of the USA surface area could be used to provide solar power for the nation. Estimate the size of this square based on the power use for the USA and the power you get from the Sun. Also estimate the size of this area from the map that is shown in the presentation (I'm sure you can find a better image online). This is my kind of "trust but verify" question.
Elon Musk also claims that the battery for the whole nation would just be a tiny red dot. Estimate the size of land you would need to store a day's worth of energy.
Tesla also announced the Powerpack. These are essentially industrial sized versions of the Powerwall that can store 100 kWh of energy. Musk also claims that with 160 million Powerpacks, you could move the USA to solar power with batteries. First, check this estimate of power storage. Second, how many Powerpacks would Telsa need to produce per day to make enough batteries to switch to solar in just one year.

Search this electronic blog

ASET SPACESHIP AIR SPACE EARTH TECHNOLOGICAL SPEED SMART MODEL 2020 FROM INVENTOR LEDO TO THE WORLD

Translate

Contents

ASET Comparison Technological